Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany, also called the Third Reich, was the name for Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party (NSDAP). Nazi Germany is best known for its aggressive foreign policy, for launching World War II in Europe and the Holocaust, which resulted in the death of millions of European Jews and other minorities.
On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer (“leader”), centralizing all power in his hands. Under the Führerprinzip (“leader principle”), the Führer’s word was considered to be above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of theAutobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity and made Hitler’s rule mostly unchallenged.
Racism, especially antisemitism, was a main tenet of society in Nazi Germany. The Gestapo (secret state police) andSchutzstaffel (SS) under Heinrich Himmler destroyed the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition and persecuted and murdered the Jews. It was believed that the Germanic peoples—who were also referred to as the Nordic race—were the purest representation of the Aryan race, and were therefore the master race. Education focused on racial biology, population policy, and physical fitness. Membership in the Hitler Youth organization became compulsory. The number of women enrolled in post-secondary education plummeted, and womens’ rights were sharply curtailed. Entertainment and tourism were organized via the Strength Through Joy program. The government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific forms of art and discouraging or banning others. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, and Hitler’s hypnotizing oratory to control public opinion. The 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage.
Nazi Germany made aggressive demands for territory, threatening war if they were not met. Austria was annexed in theAnschluss in 1938, and the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia was taken via the Munich Agreement that same year. Hitlermade a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939, starting World War II in Europe. In alliance withBenito Mussolini‘s Italy, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, and threatened its remaining major foe: Great Britain. Reichskommissariate (Reich Commissariats) were established in conquered areas, and a German administration termed the General Government was established in Poland. Concentration camps, established as early as 1933, were used to hold political prisoners and opponents of the regime. The number of camps quadrupled between 1939 and 1942 to 300+, as slave-laborers from across Europe, Jews, political prisoners, criminals, homosexuals, gypsies, the mentally ill and others were imprisoned.
The tide turned after the failure of Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—in 1941. The Soviets counter-attacked in a series of huge, fierce battles that overwhelmed the Nazis. Germany was overrun in 1945 by the Soviets from the east and the remaining Allies from the west. The victorious Allies initiated a policy of denazification and put the Nazi leadership on trial for war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials.